Schema theory and reading comprehension 图式理论与英语阅读.doc

1、 Schema theory and reading comprehensionAbstract Reading is acknowledged to be the most stable and durable ability in second language learning. In traditional sense, reading is sometimes viewed as a passive skill. In contemporary approaches to reading, meaning is created through the interaction of r

2、eader and text. Readers expectations are based on readers prior knowledge. Background knowledge that aids in text comprehension has recently been studied under the schema theory. Schema theory describes the process by which readers combine their own background knowledge with the information in a tex

3、t to comprehend that text. This is an important concept in language teaching. It has been used as a theoretical model in several important areas in listening and reading research. This thesis attempts to apply schema theory to the teaching of reading comprehension in middle school .Two types of sche

4、ma most often discussed in reading research are content schemata and formal schemata. Content schemata are the knowledge relative to the content domain of a text; formal schemata refer to the organization forms and rhetorical structures of different types of texts. Swales (1990: 87) believes that wh

5、en readers are familiar with content and form , the texts will be relatively accessible.In order to help students understand better, schema must be activated and this activation relates to two basic models of information processing, namely bottom-up processing and top-down processing. Pre-reading ta

6、sks are often designed to activate or build the students schemata. The teacher can use some teaching methods to activate -students existing schemata. To sum up, the teacher should have a deep understanding that students schemata play a very important role in reading comprehension. The teacher can us

7、e different methods to activate students existing schemata or help students build new schemata according to different teaching situations to improve their reading competence .Key words schema theory； reading comprehension； activation； construction； IntroductionWith the deep-going development of the

8、reform of English teaching and learning, the research on the English teaching and learning has won great achievements. Many experts and scholars have developed some practical scientific theories in this domain. In macro-perspective, they have suggested communicative language teaching approach, situa

9、tional teaching approach, self-access learning and so on. In micro-perspective, they have discussed the methods of teaching listening, speaking, writing and reading comprehension respectively. As is known to us, reading is an indispensable part of English learning. Many theories on reading comprehen

10、sion have been brought about, and schema theory is one of them .In contemporary approaches to reading, meaning is created through the interaction of reader and text. Schema theory describes the process by which readers combine their own background knowledge with the information in a text to comprehe

11、nd that text. It has been used as a theoretical model in several important areas of listening and reading research. This thesis attempts to apply schema theory to the study of reading comprehension so as to provide English readers with an effective reading method. This thesis consists of four chapte

12、rs. The first chapter gives a general introduction to the previous studies of schema theory. The second chapter deals with schema theory and second language comprehension. The third chapter focuses on two types of schemata. The fourth chapter proposes some teaching approaches which the teacher can a

13、dopt in schema activation, construction and application. Chapter one1 A General Introduction to Previous Studies of Schema Theory1.1 Definitions The term schema (plural schemata) was first coined by Kant in 1781，however it was first used by Bartlett in 1932 in his classic study of how human memory w

14、orks. Bartlett(1932) argued that the knowledge we carry around in our mind is organized into interrelated patterns. These are constructed from all our previous experiences of a given aspect of the experiential world, and they enable us to make predictions about future experience. During the course o

15、f our lives, we build up hundreds of mental schemata and they help us make sense of many situations. Cook defines the concept as a mental representation of atypical instance (Cook, 1989:69).Schemata have been described as cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-t

16、erm memory (Widdowson,1983:34 ). Widdowson and Cook both emphasize the cognitive characteristics of schema which allow us to relate incoming information to already known information. This covers the knowledge of the world, from everyday knowledge to very specialized knowledge. There are hundreds of

17、mental schemata, from having a meal to taking part in a business meeting, to making tea. According to Anderson and Pearson, schemata are active, self-activating and self-revising. Schemata play a critical role in cognitive processing. Schemata help us to focus our attention, to comprehend, to interp

18、ret, to remember, to make inferences, to set goals and expectations, to reason and to solve problems. Schema theory is based on the notion that past experiences lead to the creation of mental frameworks that help us make sense of new experiences (Nunan,1999: 201).It has been used as a theoretical mo

19、del in several important areas of listening and reading research. The recent emphasis on the crucial role prior knowledge plays in understanding a language is an outgrowth of schema theory research (Rumelhart,1980).1.2 The studies on the application of schema theory The need to develop students back

20、ground knowledge is fully recognized from the above research Furthermore much research has been done on the application of schema theory. The schema application treatment was more effective with the readers at beginning levels of proficiency, while the vocabulary and read-test conditions were more e

21、ffective for readers at intermediate and advanced levels. It seems clear that for lower proficiency students at least, pre-reading tasks designed to help them apply what they already know about a subject can help significantly in reading comprehension. In this chapter, we have. seen that our knowled

22、ge and expectations about the world will strongly affect our ability to understand new information by providing a framework within which the new information might hit . A great deal of research has been carried out using schema theory. In summary, the following implications from the research can be

23、drawn: background knowledge is a more important factor than grammatical complexity in the ability of readers to comprehend the text; readers comprehend texts about their own cultures more accurately than the other; use pre-reading, schema-building tasks, particularly with lower proficiency students

24、to help them apply what they already know to the: task of reading; relevant pre-listening activities or clues facilitate the listening comprehension. Schema theory is based on the belief that every act of comprehension involves ones knowledge of the world as well” (Anderson, 1984). Theories on the c

25、ontribution of schemata to the reading process are discussed in chapter two. Chapter Two2 Schema Theorys Function in English Reading Comprehension2.1 Perspectives on the reading process Several models of the reading process have been developed over the years to explain how a reader derives meaning f

26、rom a text. Among which, three models of the reading process are discussed respectively.2.1.1 Traditional text-based model In the traditional text-based model, reading was thought to be strictly a decoding process in which the reader gathered information from the page, identifying letters and combin

27、ing them to form words, then sentences, and paragraphs. A second language readers inability to comprehend a selection was attributed to decoding problems resulting from unfamiliarity with vocabulary, syntax, and grammar. One of the assumptions underlying the text-based model is that once a reader ha

28、s blended the sounds together to form a word, then the word will be recognized. In other words. it is assumed that the reader will already know these words in their spoken form. This in fact, is not an assumption that can be made with either second or first language readers. Most teachers who have t

29、aught initial reading using the model are familiar with students who can“read”without understanding. In other words, they can sound out the words, but are unable to make sense of the text itself. However, in China, the teaching of reading has been deeply influenced by this model. Teachers have spent

30、 much time in teaching vocabulary, grammar while theyre having reading sessions in that reading is viewed as a means of learning languages by teachers. Students used to decode the text throughout the reading process and they may have comprehension difficulty when faced with language obstacles. In al

31、l, there are two reasons why Chinas reading teaching is unsatisfactory:one is the lack of knowledge of reading process; the other is inappropriateness of teaching methods of reading(李力，1994: 87). The model has come in for a great deal of criticism for the fact that it deemphasizes meaning in the rea

32、ding process. The research leads to the development of the famous phycholinguistic model of reading.2.1.2 The psycholinguistic model This is a meaning-based model proposed by Goodman(1967) and Smith (1971).Goodman described reading as a “psycho-linguistic guessing game”(1967), which “involves an int

33、eraction between thought and language.” According to this point of view, efficient readers develop predictions about the content of a passage. Along with textual clues, knowledge and experience help readers develop expectations about what they will read. The efficient reader then reads rapidly to co

34、nfirm or refute these predictions. If hypotheses are confirmed, the reader continues with an increasing store of information on the topic. If they are not confirmed, the reader returns and rereads more carefully. In all, reading is a process of reconstructing meaning rather than decoding form. Howev

35、er, there are also problems with this hypothesis. Stanovich(1980), among others, has pointed out that if reading were a process of developing and testing hypotheses, then reading would actually take longer than the decoding approach. Therefore the research leads to the development of the schema theo

36、ry model.2.1.3. The schema theory model In contemporary approaches to reading, meaning is not seen as being fully presented in a text waiting to be decoded. Rather, meaning is created through the interaction of reader and text. Reader expectations are based on the readers background knowledge. Accor

37、ding to the schema theory, “Comprehension is an interactive process between the readers background knowledge and the text”(Carrel and Eisterhold, 1983).The theoretical framework emphasizes the role of preexisting knowledge(a readers schemata)in providing the reader with information that is implicit

38、in a text. Therefore schema theorys function in reading comprehension will be discussed in the next section.2.2 Schema theorys functionIn the process of “reading comprehension of a message entails drawing information from both the external graphic message and the internal schemata until the two are

39、reconciled as a single schema or message”(Anderson & Pearson, 1984). Schema theory asserts that understanding discourse involves far more than extracting information from a text; in fact, the argument holds that the learner can not extract anything for which she or he doesnt have existing knowledge.

40、 For example, Denise: Jacks coming to dinner tonight. Jim: Id planned to serve lamb. Denise: Well, youll have to rethink that one.It is difficult to interpret the above text without knowing that .Tack is a vegetarian. The basic principle behind schema theory is that texts themselves, whether spoken

41、or written, do not carry meaning. Rather they provide clues to be utilized by listeners or readers in reconstructing the original meanings of speakers or writers. The process of comprehension is guided by the principle that every input is mapped against some existing schema and that all aspects of t

42、hat schema must be compatible with the input information.(Carrel and Eisterhold,1988: 84). Clarke and Silberstein(1977:136-137) capture the essence of schema theory: “More information is contributed by the reader than by the print on the page. That is, readers understand what they read because they

43、are able to take the stimulus beyond its graphic representation and assign its membership to an appropriate group of concepts already stored in their memoriesSkill in reading depends on the efficient interaction between linguistic knowledge and knowledge of the world”. The reading process, therefore

44、, involves identification of genre, formal structure and topic, all of which activate schemata and allow readers to comprehend the text (Swales, 1990:89 ). In this chapter, we have seen that comprehension is an interactive process between the readers background knowledge and the text. The example we

45、 discussed previously doubtlessly proves that the schemata of various knowledge and experiences play a very important role in reading comprehension. Two types of schema will be discussed respectively in chapter three. Chapter three3 Types of Schema3.1 Content schemataTwo types of schema most often d

46、iscussed in reading research are content schemata and formal schemata. Content schemata are knowledge relative to the content domain of a text (Carrell Eisterhold, 1983), a text about New Year celebration, washing clothes and going to a restaurant, for example. Swales(1990:87) believes that when con

47、tent and form are familiar, the texts will be relatively accessible. Take the following short passage for example: Business had been slow since the oil crisis. Nobody seemed to want anything really elegant any more. Suddenly the door opened and a well-dressed man entered the showroom floor. John put

48、 on his friendliest and most sincere expression and walked toward the man. (Rumelhart, 1980) The research of Rumelhart supported that the subjects in the U.S.A could make sense of the passage which concerned with the schema “selling cars”.It could be inferred that John would sell the car to the man if the story went on，because the subjects in the research were familiar with the life experiences of buying cars. But the text was difficult to understand for the Chinese subjects in a research done by GuiShichun. Even though the language was not complexity for them(Gui Shichun,991)，some stude