1、Digital Image Processing and Edge DetectionDigital Image ProcessingInterest in digital image processing methods stems from two principal application areas: improvement of pictorial information for human interpretation; and processing of image data for storage, transmission, and representation for au
2、tonomous machine perception.An image may be defined as a two-dimensional function, f(x, y), where x and y are spatial (plane) coordinates, and the amplitude of f at any pair of coordinates (x, y) is called the intensity or gray level of the image at that point. When x, y, and the amplitude values of
3、 f are all finite, discrete quantities, we call the image a digital image. The field of digital image processing refers to processing digital images by means of a digital computer. Note that a digital image is composed of a finite number of elements, each of which has a particular location and value
4、. These elements are referred to as picture elements, image elements, pixels, and pixels. Pixel is the term most widely used to denote the elements of a digital image.Vision is the most advanced of our senses, so it is not surprising that images play the single most important role in human perceptio
5、n. However, unlike humans, who are limited to the visual band of the electromagnetic (EM) spec- trum, imaging machines cover almost the entire EM spectrum, ranging from gamma to radio waves. They can operate on images generated by sources that humans are not accustomed to associating with images. Th
6、ese include ultra- sound, electron microscopy, and computer-generated images. Thus, digital image processing encompasses a wide and varied field of applications.There is no general agreement among authors regarding where image processing stops and other related areas, such as image analysis and comp
7、uter vi- sion, start. Sometimes a distinction is made by defining image processing as a discipline in which both the input and output of a process are images. We believe this to be a limiting and somewhat artificial boundary. For example, under this definition, even the trivial task of computing the
8、 average intensity of an image (which yields a single number) would not be considered an image processing operation. On the other hand, there are fields such as computer vision whose ultimate goal is to use computers to emulate human vision, including learning and being able to make inferences and t
9、ake actions based on visual inputs. This area itself is a branch of artificial intelligence (AI) whose objective is to emulate human intelligence. The field of AI is in its earliest stages of infancy in terms of development, with progress having been much slower than originally anticipated. The area
10、 of image analysis (also called image understanding) is in be- tween image processing and computer vision.There are no clearcut boundaries in the continuum from image processing at one end to computer vision at the other. However, one useful paradigm is to consider three types of computerized proces
11、ses in this continuum: low-, mid-, and high level processes. Low-level processes involve primitive opera- tions such as image preprocessing to reduce noise, contrast enhancement, and image sharpening. A low-level process is characterized by the fact that both its inputs and outputs are images. Mid-l
12、evel processing on images involves tasks such as segmentation (partitioning an image into regions or objects), description of those objects to reduce them to a form suitable for computer processing, and classification (recognition) of individual objects. A midlevel process is characterized by the fa
13、ct that its inputs generally are images, but its outputs are attributes extracted from those images (e.g., edges, contours, and the identity of individual objects). Finally, higher level processing involves “making sense” of an ensemble of recognized objects, as in image analysis, and, at the far en
14、d of the continuum, performing the cognitive functions normally associated with vision.Based on the preceding comments, we see that a logical place of overlap between image processing and image analysis is the area of recognition of individual regions or objects in an image. Thus, what we call in th
15、is book digital image processing encompasses processes whose inputs and outputs are images and, in addition, encompasses processes that extract attributes from images, up to and including the recognition of individual objects. As a simple illustration to clarify these concepts, consider the area of
16、automated analysis of text. The processes of acquiring an image of the area containing the text, preprocessing that image, extracting (segmenting) the individual characters, describing the characters in a form suitable for computer processing, and recognizing those individual characters are in the s
17、cope of what we call digital image processing in this book. Making sense of the content of the page may be viewed as being in the domain of image analysis and even computer vision, depending on the level of complexity implied by the statement “making sense.” As will become evident shortly, digital i
18、mage processing, as we have defined it, is used successfully in a broad range of areas of exceptional social and economic value.The areas of application of digital image processing are so varied that some form of organization is desirable in attempting to capture the breadth of this field. One of th
19、e simplest ways to develop a basic understanding of the extent of image processing applications is to categorize images according to their source (e.g., visual, X-ray, and so on). The principal energy source for images in use today is the electromagnetic energy spectrum. Other important sources of e
20、nergy include acoustic, ultrasonic, and electronic (in the form of electron beams used in electron microscopy). Synthetic images, used for modeling and visualization, are generated by computer. In this section we discuss briefly how images are generated in these various categories and the areas in w
21、hich they are applied. Images based on radiation from the EM spectrum are the most familiar, especially images in the X-ray and visual bands of the spectrum. Electromagnet- ic waves can be conceptualized as propagating sinusoidal waves of varying wavelengths, or they can be thought of as a stream of
22、 massless particles, each traveling in a wavelike pattern and moving at the speed of light. Each massless particle contains a certain amount (or bundle) of energy. Each bundle of energy is called a photon. If spectral bands are grouped according to energy per photon, we obtain the spectrum shown in
23、fig. below, ranging from gamma rays (highest energy) at one end to radio waves (lowest energy) at the other. The bands are shown shaded to convey the fact that bands of the EM spectrum are not distinct but rather transition smoothly from one to the other.Image acquisition is the first process. Note
24、that acquisition could be as simple as being given an image that is already in digital form. Generally, the image acquisition stage involves preprocessing, such as scaling.Image enhancement is among the simplest and most appealing areas of digital image processing. Basically, the idea behind enhance
25、ment techniques is to bring out detail that is obscured, or simply to highlight certain features of interest in an image. A familiar example of enhancement is when we increase the contrast of an image because “it looks better.” It is important to keep in mind that enhancement is a very subjective ar
26、ea of image processing. Image restoration is an area that also deals with improving the appearance of an image. However, unlike enhancement, which is subjective, image restoration is objective, in the sense that restoration techniques tend to be based on mathematical or probabilistic models of image
27、 degradation. Enhancement, on the other hand, is based on human subjective preferences regarding what constitutes a “good” enhancement result. Color image processing is an area that has been gaining in importance because of the significant increase in the use of digital images over the Internet. It
28、covers a number of fundamental concepts in color models and basic color processing in a digital domain. Color is used also in later chapters as the basis for extracting features of interest in an image.Wavelets are the foundation for representing images in various degrees of resolution. In particula
29、r, this material is used in this book for image data compression and for pyramidal representation, in which images are subdivided successively into smaller regions.Compression, as the name implies, deals with techniques for reducing the storage required to save an image, or the bandwidth required to
30、 transmit it.Although storage technology has improved significantly over the past decade, the same cannot be said for transmission capacity. This is true particularly in uses of the Internet, which are characterized by significant pictorial content. Image compression is familiar (perhaps inadvertent
31、ly) to most users of computers in the form of image file extensions, such as the jpg file extension used in the JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) image compression standard.Morphological processing deals with tools for extracting image components that are useful in the representation and descr
32、iption of shape. The material in this chapter begins a transition from processes that output images to processes that output image attributes.Segmentation procedures partition an image into its constituent parts or objects. In general, autonomous segmentation is one of the most difficult tasks in di
33、gital image processing. A rugged segmentation procedure brings the process a long way toward successful solution of imaging problems that require objects to be identified individually. On the other hand, weak or erratic segmentation algorithms almost always guarantee eventual failure. In general, th
34、e more accurate the segmentation, the more likely recognition is to succeed.Representation and description almost always follow the output of a segmentation stage, which usually is raw pixel data, constituting either the boundary of a region (i.e., the set of pixels separating one image region from
35、another) or all the points in the region itself. In either case, converting the data to a form suitable for computer processing is necessary. The first decision that must be made is whether the data should be represented as a boundary or as a complete region. Boundary representation is appropriate w
36、hen the focus is on external shape characteristics, such as corners and inflections. Regional representation is appropriate when the focus is on internal properties, such as texture or skeletal shape. In some applications, these representations complement each other. Choosing a representation is onl
37、y part of the solution for trans- forming raw data into a form suitable for subsequent computer processing. A method must also be specified for describing the data so that features of interest are highlighted. Description, also called feature selection, deals with extracting attributes that result i
38、n some quantitative information of interest or are basic for differentiating one class of objects from another.Recognition is the process that assigns a label (e.g., “vehicle”) to an object based on its descriptors. As detailed before, we conclude our coverage of digital image processing with the de
39、velopment of methods for recognition of individual objects.So far we have said nothing about the need for prior knowledge or about the interaction between the knowledge base and the processing modules in Fig 2 above. Knowledge about a problem domain is coded into an image processing system in the fo
40、rm of a knowledge database. This knowledge may be as simple as detailing regions of an image where the information of interest is known to be located, thus limiting the search that has to be conducted in seeking that information. The knowledge base also can be quite complex, such as an interrelated
41、list of all major possible defects in a materials inspection problem or an image database containing high-resolution satellite images of a region in connection with change-detection applications. In addition to guiding the operation of each processing module, the knowledge base also controls the int
42、eraction between modules. This distinction is made in Fig 2 above by the use of double-headed arrows between the processing modules and the knowledge base, as opposed to single-headed arrows linking the processing modules.Edge detectionEdge detection is a terminology in image processing and computer
43、 vision, particularly in the areas of feature detection and feature extraction, to refer to algorithms which aim at identifying points in a digital image at which the image brightness changes sharply or more formally has discontinuities.Although point and line detection certainly are important in an
44、y discussion on segmentation,edge detection is by far the most common approach for detecting meaningful discounties in gray level.Although certain literature has considered the detection of ideal step edges, the edges obtained from natural images are usually not at all ideal step edges. Instead they
45、 are normally affected by one or several of the following effects:1.focal blur caused by a finite depth-of-field and finite point spread function; 2.penumbral blur caused by shadows created by light sources of non-zero radius; 3.shading at a smooth object edge; 4.local specularities or interreflecti
46、ons in the vicinity of object edges. A typical edge might for instance be the border between a block of red color and a block of yellow. In contrast a line (as can be extracted by a ridge detector) can be a small number of pixels of a different color on an otherwise unchanging background. For a line
47、, there may therefore usually be one edge on each side of the line.To illustrate why edge detection is not a trivial task, let us consider the problem of detecting edges in the following one-dimensional signal. Here, we may intuitively say that there should be an edge between the 4th and 5th pixels.
48、5764152148149If the intensity difference were smaller between the 4th and the 5th pixels and if the intensity differences between the adjacent neighbouring pixels were higher, it would not be as easy to say that there should be an edge in the corresponding region. Moreover, one could argue that this case is one in which there are several edges.Hence, to firmly state a specific threshold on how large the intensity change between two neighbouring pixels must be for us to say that the
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